Note: For all references cited within
this chapter, direct links are provided to the appropriate section of the
Annotated Bibliography
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Ethical Issues
Many peoples'
concerns about modern genetics are based on ethical issues and the values
inherent in particular societies. The Nuffield Council on Bioethics
(1999) has
examined the ethical issues that are raised by the development and application
of GM plant technology in world agriculture and food security. Its perspective
on GM crops was guided by consideration of three main ethical principles: the
principle of general human welfare, the maintenance of people's rights and the
principle of justice. Some of these considerations, such as the need to ensure
food security for present and future generations, safety for consumers and care
of the environment were considered to be straightforward and broadly
utilitarian. Others, arising from concern that GM crops are 'unnatural',
are more complex.
The
Nuffield Bioethics Working Party accepted that some genetic modifications are
truly novel but concluded that there was no clear dividing line which could
prescribe what types of genetic modification were unacceptable because they were
considered by some to be ‘unnatural’. It
took the view that the genetic modification of plants does not differ to such an
extent from conventional breeding that it is in itself morally objectionable. GM
technology does, however, have the potential to lead to significant changes in
farming practices in food production and in the environment (Nuffield Council on
Bioethics 1999).
The
Nuffield Bioethics report further concluded that GM crops represent an important
new technology that ought to have the potential to do much good in the world
provided that proper safeguards are maintained or introduced. All those who are
involved in developing the new technology, whether they are researchers in the
public sector, in agrochemical or agricultural businesses or farmers, or food
manufacturers and retailers need to recognise and accept a broad responsibility
to the public. They need to ensure that ethical concerns are taken account of,
that their new technologies and products are safe for human consumption and
avoid further harm to the environment, that the potential of GM technology is
harnessed to meet the most urgent food needs of the world as well as commercial
benefit, that impartial information is made widely available to the public and
that consumer choice is fully respected. The Nuffield Council on Bioethics is
presently examining the ethical issues further, as they relate specifically to
the applications of modern genetics in developing countries (Nuffield
2003).
Other
studies that considered the ethical issues associated with the applications of
modern genetics in human health, agriculture and the environment have been
undertaken by the Pontifical Academy of Sciences, and their findings on Science
and the Future of Mankind have been published by the Vatican
(2001). The
Pontifical Academy makes several recommendations in relation to the challenge of
world hunger, the potential contributions of genetically modified food plants,
and the conditions for the beneficial use of this new technology. The study
expresses the concerns of the scientific community about the sustainability of
present agricultural practices and the certainty that new techniques will be
effective. It also stresses the need for the utmost care in the assessment and
evaluation of the consequences of each possible modification.
The study also expresses concern about excesses with regard to the
establishment of intellectual property rights in relation to widely used crops,
which could be detrimental to the interests of developing countries. It also
recommends that the examination of the safety of newly developed cultivars
should be based on well-documented methods and that the methods and results
should be openly discussed and scrutinised by the scientific community.
The
Pontifical Academy of Science also recommends the greater involvement of the
international scientific community, through its worldwide umbrella
organizations, in facilitating the beneficial use of GM food crops to combat
hunger and to facilitate the development of common standards and approaches in
both developing and industrial countries (Vatican 2001).
The
scientific knowledge and experience accumulated in managing the potential or
perceived risks associated with the applications of modern genetics and
biotechnology in agriculture has not calmed public disquiet. Some uncertainty
persists with respect to the long-term impacts of GM food and of both the short
and long term environmental effects and ecological interactions of LMOs,
particularly in tropical regions. This implies a need to keep current concepts
and practices for risk assessment, management and monitoring under regular, open
review and revision. While it is not possible to guarantee total elimination of
risk, potential risks must be assessed and managed safely, and in ways that
inspires public confidence in regulatory systems.
This
implies that public concerns must be addressed and that the policy and
regulatory processes need to be transparent and participatory. Continuing
efforts need to be made by regulatory authorities to engage public opinion, to
elicit the views of a wide range of stakeholders and to ensure that
stakeholders’ views are taken into account in the decision-making and the
policy processes. A growing number of efforts are now being made worldwide to
engage public opinion and to stimulate dialogue among all interested parties,
including: members of civil society, governments, scientists, regulators,
farmers, the biotechnology industry and the media.
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New Genetics, Food &
Agriculture: Scientific Discoveries - Societal Dilemmas