Companion Publication Biotechnology and Sustainable Development

Chapter 1 

Overview

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The focus of the 2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development in Johannesburg is on improving the relationship between human society and the natural environment. The United Nations Secretary General has identified five specific areas for action: These are:

·      Water and sanitation, including improving the efficiency of water use in agriculture. Agriculture is the largest consumer of water, an increasingly scarce natural resource;

·      Energy, including increasing the use of renewable energy sources;

·      Health, including the link between the environment and human health, and diseases such as malaria that disproportionately affects poor people; 

·      Agricultural productivity, including the effects of declining agricultural productivity, land degradation and the impact of human activity on forests, grasslands and wetlands;

·      Biodiversity and ecosystem management, including the impact of human activity on tropical rainforests, mangroves, marine fisheries and coral reefs.

This document discusses the contributions and consequences of current and future applications of gene technology in agriculture, and the ways that these may affect human health and the environment. 

Role of Science and Technology in Food Security and Poverty Reduction

Science and technology have underpinned social and economic gains from agriculture. From 1960 to 2000, increases in global food production more than kept pace with population growth. Over this period, world cereal production doubled, per capita food production increased 37%, calories supplied increased by 35% and food prices fell by almost 50% (Pinstrup Andersen et al 1999).

Most of the agricultural productivity gains were due to yield increases, particularly those resulting from the discovery of dwarfing and other genes that conveyed useful traits into new, high yielding wheat and rice varieties. These and other scientific discoveries, when combined with a mix of supportive public policies, appropriate institutions, political commitment, public and private investments in rural areas (particularly for irrigation, credit and inputs), led to halving the numbers of people living in poverty, and largely achieving food self sufficiency, especially in Asia. However, the overall achievements mask significant variations in agricultural performance across regions. For example, the productivity gains across much of Asia have not been matched by similar productivity increases in Africa, in either crops or livestock.

Despite the increasing global availability of food, some 850 million people lack access to sufficient nutritious food at affordable prices. Approximately 60% of these people live in South and East Asia, while 25% live in sub-Saharan Africa (Pinstrup-Andersen and Cohen 2000).

World population projections predict that about 73 million people will be added to the world’s population every year from 2002 to 2020. Most will be living in the developing world. Meeting the food needs of this growing and increasingly urbanized population will require increases in agricultural productivity, and matching these increases to rising incomes and consequent dietary changes, especially the increasing demand for livestock and fish. World food and feed grain production will need to increase by 40% and roots and tubers by 58% in order to meet projected world food demand in 2020 (Pinstrup-Andersen et al 1999). Livestock production will need to double by 2020 in order to meet the expected demand for milk and meat (Delgado et al 1999). Improving the livelihoods and incomes of people in rural and urban areas is also critical to food security, since people’s access to food depends on income. These production increases will have to be achieved through sustainable increases in agricultural production per unit of land and water, in order to conserve natural resources, and reverse some of the damaging effects of past agricultural practices.

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Environmental Trends

·      The intensification of agriculture in favorable areas has come at the cost of damage to the environment, with increasing salinity problems in irrigated areas, and damage to human health, ecology and wildlife due to misuse of pesticides.

·      Other agricultural-associated practices, including deforestation, overgrazing, over fishing and water pollution also threaten the sustainable use of natural resources.

·      Decreasing water availability for agriculture is one of the most important trends. There is a need for more efficient use of water in agriculture, including the development of drought tolerant crop varieties.

·      Pressure on agricultural land for urbanization and industrialization increases. There are limited prospects for expanding the land available for agriculture, except by moving into forests, or marginal areas with poor soils and little water.

·      Deforestation and loss of biodiversity by the clearing of land for agriculture is occurring in areas of mega-terrestrial biodiversity. The use of modern plant varieties also threatens the loss of land races of crops.

·      Natural disasters pose a continuing threat to agriculture, and the long-term effects of climate change are unknown.

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Future Food Security Strategies

Strategies to achieve the needed increases in the quantity and quality of global food supplies and ensuring that there is sufficient food available at affordable prices in the developing world include:

·        Achieving sustainable productivity increases in food, feed, and fiber crops in both irrigated and rain-fed areas

·        Improve nutrient content of diets, especially for women and children

·        Reducing chemical inputs of fertilizers and pesticides and replacing these with biologically based products.

·        Integrating soil, water, and nutrient management.

·        Conserving, characterizing and using agriculturally related biodiversity

·        Improving the nutrition and productivity of livestock and controlling livestock diseases

·        Achieving environmentally sustainable increases in marine fisheries and aquaculture production.

·        Increasing trade and competitiveness in global markets, especially for products from developing countries.

 

Developments in science and technology, including the continuing discoveries in gene technology, can contribute to the above strategies for achieving food security, if they are:

·      Directed at clearly defined targets that affect poverty reduction, food security, environmental conservation and/or trade competitiveness;

·      Accompanied by political will, supportive public policies, and public and private investments in both science and technology and product development and delivery;

·      Implemented under the auspices of regulatory frameworks that generate public trust and confidence in the safety and ethical use of new biological products and processes for human health and the environment.

Developments in Modern Science

Modern science encompasses new developments in the biological, physical and social sciences. In the biological sciences, recent discoveries allow much greater understanding of the structure and function of human, animal and plant genes and the proteins and other biochemical products they produce. Discoveries in the physical sciences underpin the revolution in information and communications technologies. These branches of science come together in the field of bioinformatics, whereby large amounts of biological data can be assembled and analysed.       

There are also new developments in the social sciences that underpin community participation in technology development and evaluation. Participatory methods can help understand the problems and identify the researchable issues, particularly of small farmers operating in marginal environments. These participatory approaches may also help to clarify the concerns of people in rural and urban communities in regard to the deployment of new technologies, including the products of biotechnology. They may also assist in the integration of modern science and traditional knowledge, in order to develop knowledge-intensive solutions to specific problems that are technically feasible and socially and ethically acceptable, in various rural and urban communities (CGIAR 2002; Serageldin and Persley 2000).  

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Scope of Biotechnology

Biotechnology, broadly defined, refers to any technique that uses living organisms or substances from these organisms to make or modify a product, improve plants, trees or animals or develop microorganisms for specific uses. The applications of biotechnology consist of a suite of evolving technologies that are based on scientific discoveries that are rapidly increasing understanding of the structure and function of genes and their behavior in the environment. A chronology of the key developments in the science of genetics is given in Table 1.1.

The present applications of biotechnology important for agriculture and the environment include:

1.  Microbial fermentation, used, for example, to develop new agents for biocontrol of pests and diseases and new bio-fertilizers;

2.  New diagnostics and vaccines, based on molecular characterization of parasites, pathogens and pests;

3.  Tissue culture and micro-propagation, for multiplying high-quality planting material;

4.  Molecular markers, used for marker assisted selection (MAS) of desirable traits in plant, animal, fish and tree breeding; 

5.  Genetic engineering used to identify and transfer one or more genes within and between species, resulting in transgenic (genetically modified) organisms;

6.  Genomics, the study of all the genes present in the genome of an organism, including their structure (structural genomics), understanding their function (functional genomics), and comparing the molecular basis of similarities and differences between organisms (comparative genomics).

7.  Proteomics involves large-scale studies on gene expression at the protein level, including the purification, identification, and quantification of proteins and the determination of their localization, modifications, interactions and activities.

8.  Metabolomics relates to the analysis of all cellular metabolites.

9.  Bioinformatics is the acquisition, collation and interrogation of large collections of complex biological data.

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Commercial Applications of Biotechnology in Agriculture 

The increasing specificity in the handling of genes has meant that inventors can protect their discoveries by means of patents and other forms of intellectual property rights. This has led to substantial private investment in the biosciences, leading to what has been called a biotechnology revolution. Most modern biotechnology applications are in health care, where biotechnology-based processes are now used routinely as the basis for the discovery and production of most new medicines, diagnostic tools, and medical therapies.

The contributions of gene technology to today’s agriculture are also substantial. Discoveries based on the continuing rapid developments in gene technology have led to:

·      Better understanding of how plants function, and how they respond to the environment.

·      More targeted selection objectives in breeding programs to improve the performance and productivity of crops, livestock and fish and post harvest quality of food.

·      Molecular (DNA) markers for smarter breeding, by enabling early generation selection for key traits, thus reducing the need for extensive field selection.

·      Powerful molecular diagnostics, to assist in the improved diagnosis and management of parasites, pests and pathogens.

·      Development of vaccines for the control of livestock and fish diseases.  

In terms of crops, applications of gene technology are used widely in present day agriculture for the development of new (conventional) crop varieties, through marker assisted selection. They also provide important tools for the characterization, conservation and use of genetic resources (Platais and Persley 2002).  

Several large corporations have made major investments to adapt the new discoveries in the biological sciences for commercial purposes. A large proportion of this investment has been directed towards the development of new plant varieties for large-scale commercial agriculture in temperate zones. Private industry has dominated this research, accounting for approximately 80% of all R&D in agricultural biotechnology (James 2001a).  

In 2001, it is estimated that approximately 52.6 million hectares of land were planted in 13 countries with transgenic varieties of over 20 plant species (James 2001b,c). The most commercially important of these genetically modified crops are soybean, corn, cotton and canola (oil seed rape), with resistance to certain insects and/or tolerance to selected herbicides. These new varieties are being grown primarily in the USA, Argentina, Canada and China. The value of the global market in transgenic crops grew from US$75 million in 1995 to approximately US$ 2 billion in 2000. These trends are illustrated in Figure 1.1, and Tables 1.2 and Table 1.3.  

The traits these new plant varieties contain include insect resistance (corn, cotton), herbicide resistance (corn, soybean), delayed fruit ripening (tomato) and virus resistance (papaya). The benefits of these new crops come from better weed and insect control, with less use of chemical pesticides and herbicides; higher productivity, and more flexible crop management. These benefits accrue primarily to farmers and agribusinesses, although there are also some economic benefits accruing to consumers in terms of maintaining food production at low prices (Carpenter et al 2002; James 2001a).

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Applications of Biotechnology to Achieve International Development Goals

Several emerging economies are making major investments of human and financial resources in biotechnology with the aim of using these new developments in science and technology to reduce poverty, improve food security, conserve the environment and/or improve trade competitiveness. This matrix of international development objectives and the ways biotechnology may be used to address them is illustrated in Tables 1.4 and 1.5 (ADB 2000; Persley and Lantin 2000; Persley and MacIntyre 2001).

Present applications of biotechnology in emerging economies include increasing use of marker-assisted selection to give more precise and rapid development of new strains of crops, livestock, fish and trees. Other biotechnology applications such as tissue culture and micro-propagation are being used for the rapid multiplication of clean planting material for horticultural crops and trees. New diagnostics and vaccines are being adopted for the diagnosis, prevention and control of fish and livestock diseases (Tables 1.4 and Table 1.5).

The most widespread new transgenic crop varieties being grown in emerging economies are new cotton varieties containing one or more genes from the bacterium, Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt), for insect resistance. These varieties were grown by some 4 million farmers on at least 1.5 million ha of land in China in 2001. The resulting socio-economic benefits identified in China are reduced pesticide use, improved profitability of cotton for farmers, and reduced ill effects due to pesticide misuse on human health and the environment (Pray et al 2000). New insect resistant (Bt) cotton varieties are also being grown in South Africa.

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Emerging Scientific Trends

Applications of biotechnology in agriculture are in their infancy. Most current genetically engineered plant varieties are modified only for a single trait, such as herbicide tolerance or pest resistance. The rapid progress being made in plant sciences is expected to enhance plant breeding as the functions of more genes and how they control particular traits are identified. These developments may enable more successful breeding for complex traits such as drought tolerance. This may be of particular benefit to those farming in marginal and rainfed lands worldwide since breeding for such difficult traits has had limited success with conventional breeding of the major staple food crops.  

Further scientific advances may result in crops with a wider range of traits, some of which are likely to be of more direct interest to consumers. For example, new crop varieties may have traits that confer improved nutritional quality to food, potentially beneficial to people affected by malnutrition and vitamin and mineral deficiencies. For example, genes have been identified that can modify and enhance the composition of oils, proteins, carbohydrates, and starch in food/feed grains and root crops. A gene encoding beta carotene/vitamin A formation has been incorporated experimentally in rice.

New Understanding of Plant and Animal Genes

Genomics refers to the processes used in identifying the location and function of all the genes contained in an organism. This new knowledge is changing the future of breeding for improved strains of crops, livestock, fish, and tree species. Although much of the discussion about biotechnology today is focused on the opportunities and risks associated with inter-specific gene transfer, the same scientific discoveries brings new tools to assist breeders to identify and transfer genes through conventional breeding within a particular species. In many environments, future gains in productivity will depend upon manipulation of complex traits, such as drought or heat tolerance or tolerance to parasites. These traits are often difficult to identify and utilize in conventional breeding programs without the additional help of modern science.

Twelve crops, five livestock and two fish species provide over 90% of the world’s food. For these staple species, national and international public sector research has made a large investment in genetic resources and breeding materials, and has an understanding of their behavior in different environments. These scientific and biological resources will become increasingly important in gaining knowledge about the function of genes and in developing molecular markers to assist in the breeding of improved strains.

Strategic research is required in order to understand the genetic basis of the agriculturally important crops, livestock and fish, to identify potentially useful genes to address important constraints, and to understand how the gene products (proteins and other metabolites) function in the cells of the living organism. Scientific developments in emerging areas offer promise of new ways to deal with previously intractable problems in crop and livestock production, forestry and fisheries and contribute to sustainable development. To achieve this promise, they will need to be combined with other skills in areas such as nutrition, biochemistry, immunology, ecology and risk management, as well as understanding and addressing community concerns about gene technology itself. 

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Understanding Risks and Benefits of Gene Technology  

The rapid increase in the use of new techniques for understanding and modifying the genetics of living organisms has led to greatly increased interest and investments in biotechnology. These developments have been accompanied by increasing public concerns as to the power of the new technologies and the safety and ethics of their use for improving human health, agriculture and the environment.   

Public concerns about the applications of biotechnology lie in four major areas:

1)      Ethical issues;

2)      Socio-economic effects;

3)      Food safety and human health; and

4)      Impact on biodiversity and the environment.

The ethical issues relate to moral and social concerns about the nature of gene technology itself and the consequences of its use in specific situations. There are concerns about the appropriateness of the use of intellectual property rights in relation to living organisms, and means to ensure the equitable sharing of benefits by holders of genetic resources, owners of indigenous knowledge and inventors. 

Socio-economic effects are concerned with the economic risks and benefits in the use of new biotechnology applications, the implications of intellectual property management on agriculture in different countries and in identifying who gains and who loses from the use of new technologies in various circumstances. These issues are addressed in detail by Pardey et al (2001). 

In relation to food safety and human health, there are concerns as to assessing the risks of genetically modified foods to human health, in the short and long term; identifying specific nutritional benefits of genetically modified foods developed for this purpose; and searching for any unintended effects of genetic modifications on food. 

In relation to impact on biodiversity and other possible environmental effects, the concerns relate to assessing the risks and benefits of releasing living modified organisms into the environment, and the effects such releases may have on the environment. These effects may be through direct effects on the environment, including potential impact on biodiversity, and/ or indirect effects through changing agricultural practices that affect the environment. 

Consideration of these issues, on a case by case basis, provides a basis for choices on the merits and safety of the applications of new biotechnologies to address particular problems, relative to existing agricultural technologies and other technology options. While acknowledging the importance of all these issues in making choices on the use of gene technology to address particular aspects of sustainable development, subsequent chapters of this document address:  The emerging scientific trends (Chapter 2); the scientific basis of assessing the effects of gene technology on food safety and human health (Chapter 3); and the impact of gene technology on biodiversity and the environment (Chapter 4).  

Further information and references

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Go to Chapter 2 - Emerging Scientific Trends